Chemistry


Chemistry includes the study of specific substances, the changes and reactions they undergo, and specific chemical systems. The dividing line between physics and chemistry is not clear, and the two subjects overlap substantially. On this site, physics deals with general laws applicable to all substances, while chemistry involves the applications of these laws to specific substances and their changes. Chemistry is sometimes called the central science, because it involves the study of all forms of matter, including those observable in the heavens, the earth, and living things.	Sapience Home Site Map About Sapience Science Chemical systems Chemical change Substances
It is very practically applied in the use and manufacture of substances and products in industry. In this section, the focus is on "pure" or theoretical chemistry. Applications of it are considered under the general heading of culture or economics.

Chemistry includes the study of specific substances, the changes and reactions they undergo, and specific chemical systems. The dividing line between physics and chemistry is not clear, and the two subjects overlap substantially. On this site, physics deals with general laws applicable to all substances, while chemistry involves the applications of these laws to specific substances and their changes.

Chemistry is sometimes called the central science, because it involves the study of all forms of matter, including those observable in the heavens, the earth, and living things.

Science

It is very practically applied in the use and manufacture of substances and products in industry. In this section, the focus is on "pure" or theoretical chemistry. Applications of it are considered under the general heading of culture or economics.

Systems

This section will include major traditional fields of chemistry including organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, gas and plasma chemistry, liquid chemistry, and solid state chemistry.

Changes

There are three major categories of chemical change: Physical changes, chemical reactions, and nuclear reactions,

Substances

There are three major categories of substances: mixtures, compounds, and elements.


History Development of chemistry in prehistory including early prehistory, middle prehistory, and late prehistory is obscure. The study of chemistry in antiquity including the 5th millennium BC, 4th Millennium BC, 3rd Millennium BC, 2nd millennium BC, and early 1st millennium BC is being set aside for the present. There are origins in classical and medieval history including early classical, late classical, early medieval, and late medieval periods. Most of the development of chemistry is modern. In the 16th and 17th centuries its methods were not well developed. In the 18th century, the fundamental reactions and substances were recognized,although I do not yet have specific links to the early 18th century, early mid 18th century, mid 18th century, late-mid 18th century, or late 18th century. In the 19th century the science developed substantially, although I also lack specific links to the early 19th century, early mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late mid 19th century, or late 19th century. In the 20th century chemistry has advanded substantially. In the early 20th century, chemistry benefitted greatly from developments in thermodynamics and optics. In the early-mid 20th century, advances in quantum theory were beginning to be applied in chemistry. In the mid 20th century, methods using radioactivity and, following World War II, much of nuclear chemistry was worked out, as well as methods of quantum chemistry, and many new compounds were synthesized. In the late-mid 20th century, chemical theory advanced more slowly, though methods continued to develop. Chemistry continues to progress in the late 20th century and early 21st century. The early 2000s can be connected. The late 2000s including 2006 and 2007 can be connected. 2008 including the first quarter, second quarter, third quarter during July, August, and September, and fourth quarter including October and November can be connected. Its future has not been examined, but will include near future, middle future, and far future.
Sociology Social structure and change including social structure, social types and social change will be useful. Particular communities including Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York City will be significant. Of the various peoples of the world, followed by Asiatic peoples have made some contribution. Those of African peoples have been negligible. Particular nations can be considered. Bangladesh, Russia, Nigeria, Japan, Mexico, and the Philippines can be connected. Western civilization including Brazil has made the greatest contributions to chemistry. Anglic peoples including the United States have been prominent. Asiatic peoples including those of Pakistan have made contributions to chemistry. South Asian peoples including those of India have made some contributions. Oriental peoples including those of China have made contributions. Southeast Asian peoples including those of Indonesia may have made some contributions. Contributions of American Indian peoples including those found in the United States and Brazil have been negligible.
Institutions Families including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families appear to be only weakly influential. Education, including chemistry teaching, cultural institutions, chemical research, school systems, and particular schools is very important. Economics including economic activity, industries, and economic systems is highly important and integrated with chemistry, Government including law, government structure, government activity, and particular govnerments seems to be fairly weakly connected. Religion including religious beliefs, practice, organization, and religions of the world seems to be fairly weakly connected.
Culture Material culture including industrial technology, building technology, foodstuffs, clothing, transportation technology, communication technology, and other artifacts is useful in chemistry. . Conceptual culture is also significant. Language, graphic arts, and literature are important. Mathematics is necessary.Applied science, particularly including measurement, is also important. Philosophy is less important than it once was. Behavioral culture including customs, occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events has some important elements.
Anthropology Chemistry is connected to some particular groups. Human geography and ecology have limited applicability. Physical anthropology has limited applicability.Demography including population change, population structure, death, migration, and birth can be connected. Social foundations including social group types, social group behavior, social control, social interaction, and social presentation will be useful.
Personal studies Some individuals in the biography list have made significant contributions to chemistry. These may perhaps include: Aristotle Lavoisier Psychology including social psychology, personality, mental disorders, developmental psychology, behavior patterns, mind, and behavioral fundamentals and the human body including form and appearance, life cycle, disease, body function, and body structure can be applied to chemistry somewhat.
Other sciences Biology is connected to chemistry. Biohistory, ecology, systematics, organism biology, and cytology principally illustrate applications. Biochemistry and molecular biology have the strongest applications.	Links to other sites: Yahoo directory - Chemistry
Earth science is also connected to chemistry, largely through its applications. Geohistory has some connection to chemistry. Physical geography including mapping, terrestrial, and oceanic geography is also useful. Hydrospheric science including oceanography, glaciology, groundwater, and fresh water suggests some applications. Atmospheric science including atmospheric structure, meteorology, and climatology suggest other applications. Geology including minerals, rocks, landdforms, geologic processs, and interior geoology suggests even more. The abundance and origin of chemical elements and substances is connected to astronomy, which also provides information about applications. Cosmology and galactic astronomy have some application. Stellar astronomy including interstellar medium, stars, star clusters, and astrocartography is somewhat useful in these studies. Solar system astronomy including the sun, planetary systems, minor bodies, interplanetary medium, and solar system history is particularly useful. Physics The structure of matter is vital and overlaps substantially with chemistry. Bulk matter, including solids, liquids, gas, and plasma, is particularly important. Molecular physics including bonding, molecular structure, and molecular behavior is often considered an essential part of chemistry. Atomic physics includes discussion of atoms, which are the smallest units of chemical elements. Subatomic physics includes discussion of the fundamental particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons, which are the smallest components of atoms, and their interactions with one another. Quantum mechanics is used rather heavily in physics. .Relativity is not directly used much in chemistry. Electromagnetism is highly important. Optics including electromagnetic waves, geometric optics, physical optics, quantum optics, and the electromagnetic spectrum is also useful to various parts of chemical study. Magnetism including electric current elements, current assemblages, magnetic field, force, flux, potential, and magnetic properties of matter can also be applied. Electric current involving durrent definitions, EMF, resistance, DC Circuits, and AC surcuits is involved in electrochemistry. Electrostatics including electric charge, electric charge distributions, electric force, electric field, flux, potential, capacitance, and electrical properties of matter have applications in chemistry. Chemical thermodynamics is vital. Chemistry should also include some nonclassical thermodynamics, including systems, states, and dynamic processes. For practical purposes, classical thermodynamics with systems, states, and processes is commonly applied. For theoretical purposes, statistical mechanics is important. Quantum statistical mechanics and relativistic statistical mechanics are used less than classical statistical mechanics. Mechanics is useful. Gravitation including nonrigid celestial mechanics, rigid body celestial mechanics, particle celestial mechanics, and surface gravitation is somwhat important. Nonrigid mechanics including wave mechanics, fluid mechanics, and deformable bodies is most useful. Rigid body mechanics seems to be slightly less useful than general mechanics. Dynamic systems static systems, and Rotational dynamics may be somewhat useful. Rigid body description and motion is useful, for instance, in describing shapes of chemical systems where this is important. Position and orientation, linear and angular velocity, linear and angular acceleration, and types of motions can be used. Particle mechanics is somewhat useful. Particle systems including simplified systems, particle interactions, and system properties can also be used in chemistry. Energetics involving concepts of power, mechanical energy, and work is also fundamental in studies of chemistry. Mechanical kinetics includes types and cases of force, force and the laws of motion, momentum, and the fundamental concept of mass. This should not be confused with chemical kinetics, which is the study of rates of chemical reaction. Kinematics involving types of motion, acceleration, velocity, and position is sometimes useful. Various things in chemistry can be described as particles.

History

Development of chemistry in prehistory including early prehistory, middle prehistory, and late prehistory is obscure. The study of chemistry in antiquity including the 5th millennium BC, 4th Millennium BC, 3rd Millennium BC, 2nd millennium BC, and early 1st millennium BC is being set aside for the present. There are origins in classical and medieval history including early classical, late classical, early medieval, and late medieval periods. Most of the development of chemistry is modern. In the 16th and 17th centuries its methods were not well developed. In the 18th century, the fundamental reactions and substances were recognized,although I do not yet have specific links to the early 18th century, early mid 18th century, mid 18th century, late-mid 18th century, or late 18th century. In the 19th century the science developed substantially, although I also lack specific links to the early 19th century, early mid 19th century, mid 19th century, late mid 19th century, or late 19th century.

In the 20th century chemistry has advanded substantially. In the early 20th century, chemistry benefitted greatly from developments in thermodynamics and optics. In the early-mid 20th century, advances in quantum theory were beginning to be applied in chemistry. In the mid 20th century, methods using radioactivity and, following World War II, much of nuclear chemistry was worked out, as well as methods of quantum chemistry, and many new compounds were synthesized. In the late-mid 20th century, chemical theory advanced more slowly, though methods continued to develop. Chemistry continues to progress in the late 20th century and early 21st century. The early 2000s can be connected. The late 2000s including 2006 and 2007 can be connected. 2008 including the first quarter, second quarter, third quarter during July, August, and September, and fourth quarter including October and November can be connected.

Its future has not been examined, but will include near future, middle future, and far future.

Sociology

Social structure and change including social structure, social types and social change will be useful. Particular communities including Tokyo, Seoul, Mexico City, and New York City will be significant. Of the various peoples of the world, followed by Asiatic peoples have made some contribution. Those of African peoples have been negligible. Particular nations can be considered. Bangladesh, Russia, Nigeria, Japan, Mexico, and the Philippines can be connected. Western civilization including Brazil has made the greatest contributions to chemistry. Anglic peoples including the United States have been prominent. Asiatic peoples including those of Pakistan have made contributions to chemistry. South Asian peoples including those of India have made some contributions. Oriental peoples including those of China have made contributions. Southeast Asian peoples including those of Indonesia may have made some contributions. Contributions of American Indian peoples including those found in the United States and Brazil have been negligible.

Institutions

Families including marriage, parenting, kinship, and particular families appear to be only weakly influential. Education, including chemistry teaching, cultural institutions, chemical research, school systems, and particular schools is very important. Economics including economic activity, industries, and economic systems is highly important and integrated with chemistry, Government including law, government structure, government activity, and particular govnerments seems to be fairly weakly connected. Religion including religious beliefs, practice, organization, and religions of the world seems to be fairly weakly connected.

Culture

Material culture including industrial technology, building technology, foodstuffs, clothing, transportation technology, communication technology, and other artifacts is useful in chemistry. . Conceptual culture is also significant. Language, graphic arts, and literature are important. Mathematics is necessary.Applied science, particularly including measurement, is also important. Philosophy is less important than it once was. Behavioral culture including customs, occupations, recreation and entertainment, and cultural events has some important elements.

Anthropology

Chemistry is connected to some particular groups. Human geography and ecology have limited applicability. Physical anthropology has limited applicability.Demography including population change, population structure, death, migration, and birth can be connected. Social foundations including social group types, social group behavior, social control, social interaction, and social presentation will be useful.

Personal studies

Some individuals in the biography list have made significant contributions to chemistry. These may perhaps include:

Psychology including social psychology, personality, mental disorders, developmental psychology, behavior patterns, mind, and behavioral fundamentals and the human body including form and appearance, life cycle, disease, body function, and body structure can be applied to chemistry somewhat.

Other sciences

Biology is connected to chemistry. Biohistory, ecology, systematics, organism biology, and cytology principally illustrate applications. Biochemistry and molecular biology have the strongest applications.

Links to other sites:
Yahoo directory - Chemistry

Earth science is also connected to chemistry, largely through its applications. Geohistory has some connection to chemistry. Physical geography including mapping, terrestrial, and oceanic geography is also useful. Hydrospheric science including oceanography, glaciology, groundwater, and fresh water suggests some applications. Atmospheric science including atmospheric structure, meteorology, and climatology suggest other applications. Geology including minerals, rocks, landdforms, geologic processs, and interior geoology suggests even more.

The abundance and origin of chemical elements and substances is connected to astronomy, which also provides information about applications. Cosmology and galactic astronomy have some application. Stellar astronomy including interstellar medium, stars, star clusters, and astrocartography is somewhat useful in these studies. Solar system astronomy including the sun, planetary systems, minor bodies, interplanetary medium, and solar system history is particularly useful.

Physics

The structure of matter is vital and overlaps substantially with chemistry. Bulk matter, including solids, liquids, gas, and plasma, is particularly important. Molecular physics including bonding, molecular structure, and molecular behavior is often considered an essential part of chemistry. Atomic physics includes discussion of atoms, which are the smallest units of chemical elements. Subatomic physics includes discussion of the fundamental particles called protons, neutrons, and electrons, which are the smallest components of atoms, and their interactions with one another.

Quantum mechanics is used rather heavily in physics. .Relativity is not directly used much in chemistry.

Electromagnetism is highly important. Optics including electromagnetic waves, geometric optics, physical optics, quantum optics, and the electromagnetic spectrum is also useful to various parts of chemical study. Magnetism including electric current elements, current assemblages, magnetic field, force, flux, potential, and magnetic properties of matter can also be applied. Electric current involving durrent definitions, EMF, resistance, DC Circuits, and AC surcuits is involved in electrochemistry. Electrostatics including electric charge, electric charge distributions, electric force, electric field, flux, potential, capacitance, and electrical properties of matter have applications in chemistry.

Chemical thermodynamics is vital. Chemistry should also include some nonclassical thermodynamics, including systems, states, and dynamic processes. For practical purposes, classical thermodynamics with systems, states, and processes is commonly applied. For theoretical purposes, statistical mechanics is important. Quantum statistical mechanics and relativistic statistical mechanics are used less than classical statistical mechanics.

Mechanics is useful.

Gravitation including nonrigid celestial mechanics, rigid body celestial mechanics, particle celestial mechanics, and surface gravitation is somwhat important.

Nonrigid mechanics including wave mechanics, fluid mechanics, and deformable bodies is most useful.

Rigid body mechanics seems to be slightly less useful than general mechanics. Dynamic systems static systems, and Rotational dynamics may be somewhat useful. Rigid body description and motion is useful, for instance, in describing shapes of chemical systems where this is important. Position and orientation, linear and angular velocity, linear and angular acceleration, and types of motions can be used.

Particle mechanics is somewhat useful. Particle systems including simplified systems, particle interactions, and system properties can also be used in chemistry. Energetics involving concepts of power, mechanical energy, and work is also fundamental in studies of chemistry. Mechanical kinetics includes types and cases of force, force and the laws of motion, momentum, and the fundamental concept of mass. This should not be confused with chemical kinetics, which is the study of rates of chemical reaction. Kinematics involving types of motion, acceleration, velocity, and position is sometimes useful. Various things in chemistry can be described as particles.

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